. In Etoges in 1814, the French cavalry surrounded a Russian horse battery. The gunners drew sabers and fought their way through. Their guns were also saved. Generals, Officers and Gunners. "The are formidable duelers" - French infantryman The Russian gunners were known for their physical strength. The French recalled that at Borodino the Russian gunners were "formidable duelers" when faced with French grenadiers. Officer Vasili Grigorievich Kostenetzki was very popular among gunners. This colossus could break a horseshoe with his bare hands. He also carried a pallash of enormous size and length which he used at Borodino against the French infantry. The gunners were trained in their companies (batteries). Additionally there were 10 privates and 2 NCOs in each infantry company trained in artillery duties. It gives 96-144 men per musketier regiment, in jager regiments the number was two or three times lower as the jagers were shorter and weaker men not well suited for heavy physical labor in artillery. In case of heavy casulaties among gunners these infantrymen were taken as replacement. Such change often took place in the heat of the battle. Unfortunately we don't have much information on how and where the officers were trained. Between 1800 and 1825 the First and the Second Moscow Academy provided 890 artillery officers. The guard artillery's instructional companies trained additional 900 officers and NCOs. For nobles who volunteered to join the artillery, qualifications were still higher than for those in infantry and cavalry, and even in the guard. In 1811 artillery officers below lieutenant-colonel (podpolkovnik) became one rank above infantry and cavalry officers. The Guard was not included in it. The rank of major was discontinued in artillery and engineers. Alexei Arakcheiev Inspector General of Artillery and ultra-conservative politician Count Alexei Aleksandrovich Arakcheiev was Russia's foremost artillery expert. In 1803 he served as the Inspector General of Artillery and reorganized this arm. Arakcheiev introduced lighter gun carriages and lighter caissons. Since 1808 Arakcheiev published "Artillery Journal." In 1808-1810, he served as the Minister of War and was one of the politicians responsible for war against Sweden. He urged generals to cross the frozen Baltic Sea and capture Finland. Arakcheiev was nicknamed "The Bulldog" because of the systematic rudeness displayed in barking out orders. He was a harsh disciplinarian, feared not only by the rank and file, but also by officers and generals. This man was a very vicious intimidator who nevertheless basked in over-inflated self-reliance and even enjoyed his unpopularity. With an attitude of superiority he led a Spartan lifestyle. Strangely Arakcheiev never distinguished himself in combat. According to Prussian officer Clausewitz, Arakcheiev was a Russian in every sense of the word, of great energy and cunning. (Clausewitz - "The Campaign of 1812 in Russia" p 9) Arakcheiev developed into one of Tzar's most trusted confidants. After the Napoleonic Wars the Tzar had withdrawn from domestic politics and Arakcheiev became de facto the ruler of Russian Empire. Arakcheiev designed and organized the hated military colonies. Alexei Yermolov From horse artillery to the chief of staff. Alexei Petrovich Ermolov was a robust bear of a man and ardent character. The tyrant, Tzar Paul, disliked Yermolov for his liberal views. Yermolov first served under Suvorov in Italy and then fought against Persia. He distinguished himself at Austerlitz, Eylau, Borodino and Kulm. In 1807 Yermolov commanded horse artillery of the hard fighting Bagration's rearguard. In the battle of Eylau, Yermolov took 36 horse guns, rode to Anklappen and opened a tremendous fire on the French. (It was Davout's corps in the process of outflanking the Russian army.) At Borodino Kutusov dispatched him to handle the crisis at Raievski's Redoubt. Yermolov brought 36 guns from the reserve, and showered the French with canister halting their advance. Despite horrible casualties suffered by the Russians at Borodino, Yermolov was spoiling for another battle. He was vigorously protesting against abandoning Moscow without a fight. Yermolov was not only a gunner, he also served as chief of staff of the army and commander of the Guard. - in 1811 appointed the chief of staff of the 3rd Western Army. - in 1812 became chief of staff of the 1st and 2nd Western Army. - in January of 1813 served as commander of artillery in Kutusov's column. - in May appointed as commander of Artillery Reserve. - in October commanded the Guard Infantry (two divisions). Alexander Kutaisov Son of a Turk, he studied artillery in Vienna and Paris. As a 10-year-old Alexander Ivanovich Kutaisov was already serving in the Russian Guard. His father was a Turk captured by Russians in the Russian-Turkish war. Kutaisov spoke fluently in three European languages and was quite talented painter. In 1810 he studied languages, mathematics and artillery in Vienna and in Paris. Kutaisov distinguished himself at Golymin, Eylau and Friedland. At the age of 22 Kutaisov was already a general. During the 1812 campaign he was the youngest of Russian generals and commanded the artillery of the First Western Army. He was killed at Borodino. Yermolov wrote: "After some time Kutaisov's horse came back and the blood-stained saddle led us to believ this brave general had been killed." Kutuzov lamented "The army lost its artillery commander in a battle where much depended on artillery". Nikitin. Aggressive Commander of Horse Artillery. At Borodino Nikitin's battery suffered badly but continued firing to the very end. Nikitin distinguished himself at Krasne and Maloyaroslavetz. At Krasne his 7th Horse Artillery Company fired canister at the retreating French, then mounted and charged with broadswords in hand. They captured 2 guns and 300 men. At Malo-Yaroslavetz his gunners captured enemy’s battery ! In 1813 at Lutzen, Nikitin with 40 horse guns rushed to the frontline and produced a "tremendous fire". In 1814 at La Rothiere Nikitin pushed 24-36 guns within musket range of the French voltigeurs and opened fire. At Craonne he used artillery to cover the retreat of infantry and cavalry: in the first line were placed 36 6pdr guns, 60 paces back were 28 12pdr guns. The first line fired canister, the second fired shells. Kapzevich. General Kapzevich was one of the several known gunners of the Russian army. Firstly he served in the Pavlovsk Garrison before entering in 1796 the Lifeguard Artillery Battalion. In 1797 he was promoted to the rank of colonel, and in the same year (!) became general-major. In 1801 he became chef of the 5th Artillery Battalion, and in 1804 chef of the 7th Artillery Regiment. Then Kapzevich served in Georgia and Caucassus where he held the overall command of the artillery. In 1808 he became a general attached to the Ministry of War. In 1810 Kapzevich commanded an infantry division and distinguished himself at Smolensk, Borodino and Malo-Yaroslavetz. In 1813 he commanded an infantry corps and distinguished himself at Leipzg. After Napoleonic Wars he commanded an independent corps stationed in Siberia. Kapzevich died in 1840.

. "By this time they were all approaching Tushin's battery and a ball struck the ground in front of them. 'What's that that has fallen ?' asked the accountant. 'A French pancake,' answered Zherkov. - Tolstoy "War and Peace" Equipment. "The piece is well formed, and the cartridge solid, without being heavy, the harness and the rope-tackling is of the best description..." - Sir Wilson The Russians kept their canons and unicorns polished. The wooden parts of guns, limbers and ammunition boxes were painted in green (some call it apple-green, others grass-green), while all the metal parts were painted in black. In 1802 was introduced Markevich's aiming sight. Sir Wilson writes: "The piece is well formed, and the cartridge solid, without being heavy, the harness and the rope-tackling is of the best description..." The axles were made of wood and demanded constant greasing. For this reason each piece had a bucket filled with grease. Laying the piece in the horizontal plane was done with help of handspikes. Aiming was aided by Kabanov’s sighting piece, which had to be removed before each shot. "To avoid dirtying the gun barrels under campaign conditions, they were plugged with wooden stoppers on leather straps. The touch holes were covered by a lead plug fastened with leather straps." (Mark Conrad - "The Russian Army of 1812") The guns were divided into two groups: cannons (pushki) unicorns (yedinorogi) The unicorns (until 1805 they had a unicorn engraved on the barrel) were something between typical cannon and howitzer (gaubitsy). They were excellent weapons and fired cannonballs, canister and explosive shells. The maximum firing range for ½ pood unicorn was 2300 m, and for ¼ pood - 1500 m. The Russians also tested captured French guns. They were especially interested in the effectiveness of French canister. Weight of Russian carriages: - for medium 12pdr cannon - 577 kg - for small 12pdr cannon - 495.5 kg - for 6pdr cannon - 331-393 kg - for ½ pood unicorn - 593-688 kg - for ¼ pood unicorn - 336 kg - for ¼ pood horse unicorn - 360 kg In battle the caissons were positioned 30-40 meters from the guns. According to regulation, no more than 2 gunners were to remain next to a caisson during battle. According to Mark Conrad 3 horses were harnessed to the cart with a caisson box. One horse was between the two shafts while the other two were on either side of it. The gun crew was not carried on the caisson, but a mounted man sat on the left horse. The powder wagon required 3 horses. In the battle of Leipzig the Russian gunners near Crobern left their position as soon as their ammunition wagons were empty and gone. The gunners and train-drivers went to the rear and crowded the streets of Crobern. Arakcheiev System ('1805-System') barrel's weight carriage's weight horses per gun ammunition wagons 12pdr cannon (caliber 120 mm) 800-kg 640-kg 6 * 3 6pdr cannon (caliber 95 mm) 350-kg 395-kg 4 * 2 ½ pood unicorn (caliber 152 mm) 490-kg 670-kg 8 * 3 ¼ pood unicorn (caliber 120mm) 335-kg 395-kg 4 * (6 in horse artillery) 2 pood = 16.38 kg or 36.11 lb. * - on muddy roads or in a hilly country the guns were drawn with double and even triple teams of horses.

Organization of Russian Artillery. Russia had the most numerous artillery in Europe. It also had a high number of heavy pieces. The very small number of guns they abandoned during all the campaigns speaks volumes for the exertions of their gunners and horses. In 1812 the field artillery comprised of: - 176 12pdr cannons - 524 6pdr cannons - 524 foot unicorns (10pdr and 20pdr) - 132 6pdr horse cannons - 132 horse unicorns (10pdr) The Guard artillery numbered 64 guns. "Each artillerist in a gun crew was assigned a number which designated his responsibilities: No. 1 worked the cleaning rod No. 2 carried the charge pouch No. 3 had the slow-match and matches No. 4 - the tube pouch and prickers These artillerymen were called cannoniers (kanonira) and were required to know all the procedures for loading and firing. The other crew numbers, who fulfilled the role of assistants, were called gandlangera (from German, meaning "long arms"). They carried extra charge pouches and ropes with hooks, which were used when rolling guns into position or moving them around." (Mark Conrad - "The Russian Army of 1812") The pieces were formed in tactical units: platoon (2 guns) was commanded by subaltern officer two platoons (4 guns) formed division three platoons (6 guns) formed half-company two half-companies (12 guns) formed company In combat the company's guns (12 pieces) were placed as follow: on the left stood 2 unicorns in the center were 8 cannons on the right were 2 unicorns. The company (battery) was usually deployed not more than 100 m forward of the front of infantry lines or columns. The Russians used between 6.4 paces and 18 paces intervals between the guns. In earthworks they were deployed in tighter formations, for example in Shevardino 12 guns occupied the main redoubt. The intervals were import, they allowed the limbers to pass between guns. To turn the gun around with prolonge it required intervals between 16 paces (6pdr) and 20 paces (12pdr). The guns were more often prolonged than limbered on the battlefield. Sometimes the intervals between guns were bigger, 30 or even 50 paces. In 1812, Russian field artillery comprised of: - 44 heavy companies (each of 240 men serving 20pdr unicorns and 12pdr cannons) - 58 light companies (each of 160 men serving 6 10pdr unicorns and 6 6pdr cannons) - 22 horse companies (each of 160 men serving 6 10pdr unicorns and 6 6pdr cannons) - depot companies where the artillery recruits were trained. Heavy Artillery Company Light Artillery Company Horse Artillery Company Pieces 12pdr cannons 8 - - 6pdr cannons - 8 8 or 6 ½ pood unicorns 4 - - ¼ pood unicorns - 4 4 or 6 Crew staff officers 1 1 1 officers 6 6 6 NCOs 24 24 24 bombardiers 50 35 72 gunners 50 35 134 gandlangerov 150 120 - non-combatants 59 42 44 Several companies of artillery formed battalions, and two or three battalions formed regiment. In 1803 Russian artillery comprised of 1 Guard, 9 foot and 2 horse artillery battalions. The regiment was an administrative unit. In 1805 there were 11 foot and 1 horse regiment of artillery. In 1806 artillery regiments were disbanded and were formed artillery brigades (24-36 guns each): - 1 Lifeguard Artillery Brigade - 15 field artillery brigades - 1 Georgian Artillery Brigade - 1 Caucasus Artillery Brigade - 1 Siberian Artillery Brigade In Fall 1814 the reserve and secondary reserve (zapasne) brigades were disbanded. The field artillery comprised of the following troops: - 28 foot artillery brigades (attached to infantry divisions) - 15 horse artillery companies (attached to cavalry divisions) - 2 heavy artillery companies (in Georgia and Caucasus) - 1 heavy and 1 light artillery company (on the Orenbourg line) - 24 pontoon companies (incl. 16 without pontoons) serving in fortresses and with artillery parks. Organization of Russian artillery few weeks before the battle of Borodino. Artillery Brigade attached to: heavy guns light guns horse guns Lifeguard Guard Infantry Division - 24 - 1st 1st Grenadier Division 12 24 - 2nd 2nd Grenadier Division 12 24 - 3rd 3rd Infantry Division 12 24 - 4th 4th Infantry Division 12 24 - 7th 7th Infantry Division 12 24 - 11th 11th Infantry Division 12 18 - 12th 12th Infantry Division 12 24 - 17th 17th Infantry Division 12 24 - 23rd 23rd Infantry Division - 12 - 24th 24th Infantry Division 12 24 - 26th 26th Infantry Division 12 12 - Lifeguard Horse 1st Cuirassier Division - - 16 1st Reserve I Cavalry Corps Artillery Reserve - ? - - 12 ? 2nd Reserve II Cavalry Corps Artillery Reserve - 24 - - 12 24 3rd Reserve 27th Infantry Division III Cavalry Corps Artillery Reserve 12 - - - - - - 12 24 4th Reserve IV Cavalry Corps Artillery Reserve - - - - 12 12 Don Cossack Cossack Corps Conv. Grenadier Division - - - - 12 12 HEILSBERG 1807 'Corps' GL Dohturov BORODINO 1812 II Infantry Corps GL Baggovout 3rd Division - - - Infantry Brigade - - - - - Musketier Regiment [3 btns.] - - - - - Musketier Regiment [3 btns.] - - - Infantry Brigade - - - - - Musketier Regiment [3 btns.] - - - - - Musketier Regiment [3 btns.] - - - Infantry Brigade - - - - - Musketier Regiment [3 btns.] - - - - - Grenadier Regiment [3 btns.] - - - Artillery - - - - - Heavy Battery [12 guns] - - - - - Light Battery [12 guns] - - - - - Light Battery [12 guns] - - - - - Light Battery [12 guns] 7th Division - - - Infantry Brigade - - - - - Musketier Regiment [3 btns.] - - - - - Musketier Regiment [3 btns.] - - - Infantry Brigade - - - - - Musketier Regiment [3 btns.] - - - - - Musketier Regiment [3 btns.] - - - Cavalry Brigade - - - - - Dragoon Regiment [5 sq.] - - - - - Dragoon Regiment [5 sq.] - - - - - Dragoon Regiment [5 sq.] - - - - - Horse Battery [12 guns] - - - Artillery - - - - - Heavy Battery [12 guns] - - - - - Light Battery [12 guns] - - - - - Light Battery [12 guns] 14th Division - - - Infantry Brigade - - - - - Musketier Regiment [3 btns.] - - - - - Musketier Regiment [3 btns.] - - - Infantry Brigade - - - - - Musketier Regiment [3 btns.] - - - Infantry Brigade - - - - - Musketier Regiment [3 btns.] - - - - - Musketier Regiment [3 btns.] - - - Artillery - - - - - Heavy Battery [12 guns] - - - - - Light Battery [12 guns] - - - - - Light Battery [12 guns] 4th Infantry Division - - - Infantry Brigade - - - - - Infantry Regiment [2 btns.] - - - - - Infantry Regiment [2 btns.] - - - Infantry Brigade - - - - - Infantry Regiment [2 btns.] - - - - - Infantry Regiment [2 btns.] - - - Jager Brigade - - - - - 4th Jäger Regiment [2 btns.] - - - - - 34th Jäger Regiment [2 btns.] - - - Artillery - - - - - IV Heavy Battery [12 guns] - - - - - VII Light Battery [12 guns] - - - - - VIII Light Battery [12 guns] 17th Infantry Division - - - Infantry Brigade - - - - - Infantry Regiment [2 btns.] - - - - - Infantry Regiment [2 btns.] - - - Infantry Brigade - - - - - Infantry Regiment [2 btns.] - - - - - Infantry Regiment [2 btns.] - - - Jager Brigade - - - - - 30th Jäger Regiment [2 btns.] - - - - - 48th Jäger Regiment [2 btns.] - - - Artillery - - - - - XVII Heavy Battery [12 guns] - - - - - XXXII Light Battery [12 guns] - - - - - XXXIII Light Battery [12 guns] . . . . . . .

Uniforms of Russian Artillery. Left: Russian foot gunner in 1812. Picture by Andre Jouineau, France. The Russian foot gunners wore dark green coats, black collars, white breeches and shakos. In winter they wore greatcoats. The cords and pompons on shako were red. The 1812-pattern shakos bearing a badge of two crossed barrels. Underneath of the badge was another badge: - - - three-flame grenade for men of 1st-2nd Artillery Brigades - - - one-flame grenade for men of 3rd-26th Artillery Brigades . Right: Russian horse gunner in 1812. Picture by Andre Jouineau, France. The Russian horse gunners wore dark green coats, black collars, white breeches and helmets. On campaign and in battle the breeches were covered with grey trousers. The horse gunners were armed with broadsword. It was replaced in 1814 with 1809-pattern light cavalry saber. . Left: officer of foot artillery in 1812. Picture by Andre Jouineau, France. . Right: trumpeter of horse artillery in 1812. Picture by Andre Jouineau, France. . All pictures below by Viskovatov, Russia. Left: drummers of foot artillery, 1803-1807 Right: foot artillery in 1806-1807 Left: driver of foot artillery in 1806-1807 Right: gunner and gandlanger of foot artillery in 1806-1807 Left: private and officer of foot artillery in 1808 Right: privates of foot artillery in 1808-1809 Officer and NCO of foot artillery in 1812-1816 Left: horse artillery in 1803-1806 (parade outfit) Right: horse artillery in 1803-1806 (campaign outfit) Left: NCO of horse artillery in 1804-1807 Right: trumpeters of horse artillery in 1804-1807 Left: private of horse artillery in 1807 Right: NCO and officer of horse artillery in 1812-1813 Left: officer and private of horse artillery in 1814 Right: gunner and trumpeter of horse artillery in 1814-1816

Tactics of Russian Artillery. The Russians were one of the very first to successfully use the grand batteries on battlefield. In Eylau in 1807 they formed three powerful batteries: of 70 guns, 60 and 40 guns. French two infantry divisions under Marshal Augereau lost according to Augereau himself 5,200 killed and wounded out of 7,000 ! In December 1806 in Pultusk, a French infantry division under Gazan advanced against Russian cavalry. The Russians waited until the enemy came close enough, and then, wheeliing leftwards and rightwards exposed the French to the fire of 70 guns deployed behind them. Gazan advance was immediately halted until the fire of the artillery was diverted by d'Aultanne's appearance. The main difference between the Russian and French artillery was not in the quality of gunners of guns but in the fact that Napoleon used artillery offensively while for the Russians the main purpose of artillery was to defend cavalry and infantry. The same can be said about the supportive role of Prussian and British artillery. Napoleon's artillery prepared the way for the final blow that would decide the battle. The Russians packed their battle line with numerous guns, making it difficult to break through. They also kept a strong artillery reserve as an emergency. It could be used against the enemy's attempting to outflank their positions (in 1807 Yermolov with 36 horse guns at Eylau) or against enemy's making a breakthrough (in 1812 Yermolov with 36 horse guns at Borodino). Russians loved their guns and hated losing them. It led to two situations: The gunners stubbornly defended their pieces to the very last moment, - - inflicted heavy casualties on the enemy and ... were killed by the furious attackers. The gunners pulled their pieces rearward out of action whenever - - threatened even slightly. Their fire was at too long range and not very effectice. - - But the pieces were saved. General Barclay de Tolly insisted on changing this tactic. He felt that no officer should be punished for losing a gun if it was done while inflicting serious harm on the enemy. General Kutaisov required from his gunners to inflict as heavy as possible casuatlies on the enemy. Before the Battle of Borodino he ordered: "Tell the commanders and all officers, that they should bravely stay to the last moment and then fire at the enemy with canister, and not leave the guns before the enemy sit on them. The artillery should endow itself; the loss of equipment will be equalized by the casualties among the enemy's troops." Many batteries followed this order and inflicted very heavy casualties on the enemy. The Russian company (battery) was usually deployed not more than 100 m forward of the front of infantry lines or columns. The Russians used between 6.4 paces and 18 paces intervals between the guns. In earthworks they were deployed in tighter formations, for example at Shevardino 12 guns occupied the redoubt. The intervals were import, they allowed the limbers to pass between guns. To turn the gun around with prolonge it required intervals between 16 paces (6pdr) and 20 paces (12pdr). The guns were more often prolonged than limbered on the battlefield. Sometimes the intervals between guns were bigger, 30 or even 50 paces.

Rockets. "Following the development and use of military missiles in Europe, the "Rocket Enterprise" was founded in Moscow around 1680. A signaling rocket developed in Russia in 1717. According to Russian archival records, in 1732 was produced 20 rocket-launching devices for the Russian border fortress of Brest. In 1814 I. Kartmazov reportedly tested battlefield missiles. In 1815 artillery engineer Alexander Zasyadko developed battlefield missiles for the Russian army. He also developed techniques for mass production of rockets and led the formation of the first missile unit in the Russian army around 1827." (source: www.russianspaceweb.com/rockets)

Sources and Links.
Recommended Reading.

Illustrations by Viskovatov and Parhaiev, Russia
Bogdanovich - "Istoria otechestvennoy voiny 1812 goda"
Buturlin - "Histoire Militaire de la Campaigne de 1812"
Clausewitz - "The Campaign of 1812 in Russia"
Davidov - "In the Service of the Tzar against Napoleon..."
Glinka - "Ocherki Borodinskogo Srazhenia" Part I and II
Houssaye - "Napoleon and the Campaign of 1814, France" publ 1914
Kersnovskii - "Istoriya russkoi armii" Vol IV
Kukiel - "Wojna 1812" Krakow 1937
Mihailovski-Danilevski - "Relation de la Campagne de 1805"
Nafziger - "Napoleon at Leipzig" Chicago 1996
Petre - "Napoleon’s Campaign in Poland, 1806-7"
Smirnov - "Arakcheyevskaya Artilleria" - Reitar Publications 1998
Stein - "Geschichte des Russischen Heeres"
Sytin - "Voennaya Entsiklopediya"
Wilson - "Narrative of Events during the Invasion of Russia"
Yermolov - "Zapiski A.P. Yermolova 1798-1826"
Russian Rocketry.